Sun-worship in Himachal Pradesh: A Study Based on Temples and Sculptures

Reproduced from the Journal of Ganganath Jha Kendriya Sanskrit Vidyapeeth, Vol. 42, 1986.

Sun-worship in Himachal Pradesh: a study based on temples and sculptures

by Laxman S Thakur

The Sun-worship in Himachal has been discussed here, based on archaeological data in the form of coins, inscriptions, temples and sculptures.

The Sun-worship was prevalent among almost all nations of the world. In India, solar worship has been in vogue since the pre-Vedic times. Certainly the idea of Sun-worship is based on the concept of natural phenomena, Sun as the source of light and warmth. In the Vedic times Sun was held in the highest esteem and worshipped under such names as Sūrya, Savitṛ, Pūṣan, Bhaga, Vivasvat, Mitra and Viṣṇu.^[1] We find literary descriptions of Sūrya in the Vedas, Brāhmaṇas, Upaniṣads, Epics, Sūtras, Purāṇas and the Tantras. From the corpse of vast Sanskrit, Buddhist and other literary works it is clear that Sun-worship was widely practised in different parts of India^[2] and its worshippers were known as Sauras.^[3] The earliest reference for a personified Sun-God and his attendants is found in the Aitareya Brāhmaṇa.^[4] In the subsequent period various texts lay down prescriptions for the iconography of Sun.^[5]

The earliest evidence of Sun, we find in the form of rayed disc on the Punch-marked coins discovered from Arki.^[6] The Audumbaras,^[7] Kuṇindas^[8] and Kulūtas also represented Sun symbolically in the form of svastika and cakra, on their coins, from second century B.C. to the first century A.D. After the dissolution of tribal republics, various petty States came into being, Chamba as one of the earliest local States in India.^[9]

The Kanihārā^[10] inscription inscribed on rock, shows hooked svastika which probably symbolises and stands for the Sun in his diurnal course or for light and life.^[11] Meruvarman in his bronze images’ inscriptions, traces his ancestry from the sūryavamśī line of Rājpūtas. The Lakṣṇā image inscription clearly states:^[12]

ओं मोषूणस्वा गोत्र आदित्य वंश संभूत श्री अदित्यवर्म्म-देव प्रपौत्रो श्री बलवर्म्म-देव पौत्रा श्री दीवाकरवर्म्म-देव पुत्रेण ।। श्री मेरुवर्म्मणा ।।

Oṃ Moṣūṇasvā gotra Āditya vaṃśa saṃbhūta Śrī Adityavarmma-deva prapautro Śrī Balavarmma-deva pautrā Śrī Dīvākaravarmma-deva putreṇa ।। Śrī Meruvarmmaṇā ।।

Repeatedly, his successors, in their copper-plate grants mentioned about the solar origin of the family.^[13] Further, Nirmand^[14] copper-plate of Samudrasen mentions that some sort of Sūrya worship was prevalent at Nirmand combined with Śaiva rites. These numismatic and epigraphic evidences show how Sun was worshipped symbolically in earlier times. In later periods, its worship continued in the form of temples and sculptures.

There are two temples dedicated to the Sun-God. The first is situated at the right bank of Chandrabhaga river in Lahaul (fig. 1); second on the Satluj at Nirath in the Simla district. The former is now dedicated to Markulā (Mahiṣāsuramardinī); the brass idol in the garbhagṛha was presented by Thakur Himapāla in the śāstra year 4645 = A.D. 1569-70.^[15] Interestingly, the wood-carving on the inner facade of the temple shows Sūrya seated on chariot drawn by seven horses, in two panels. The temple was originally dedicated to Sūrya.^[16]

Another temple of Sun at Nirath is in the typical nāgara style, crowned with āmalaka, dated to the Thirteenth century A.D. There is a standing image of Sūrya installed in the garbhagṛha. On the right side of the entrance there is another elaborately carved image of Sun which dates from the tenth or eleventh century A.D.^[17] The statement of Van der Sleen is incorrect when she refers to the worship of solar disc with golden rays at the Nirath temple.^[18] Besides these temples, Sun has markedly been sculptured and carved on the lintels and door-jambs of various nāgara and wooden temples as first amongst the navagrahas. Indeed we have a large number of sculptures, bronzes and carved wooden panels from different parts of Himachal, which show Sūrya in his various forms and give us the idea of his personification.

Broadly we can classify Sūrya images from Himachal into three groups:

1. Āsanamūrti on a chariot;
2. Āsanamūrti without a chariot;
3. Sthānakamūrti with lotuses in hands.

1. Āsanamūrti on a chariot

The earliest image of Sun in āsanamūrti comes from Gum^[19] (Bhatwara), in Rāvi valley of Chambā district (fig. 2). It measures 63×51 cms. and is shown in squatting position on a chariot drawn by seven horses with Aruṇa as a charioteer, holding the reins.^[20] He is wearing kuṇḍalas, so called udīcyavesha—the Northern dress—and holding lotuses in both hands. His hair falls down on shoulders in a compact position, a characteristic of the later-Gupta period. The arrow shooting goddesses Uṣā and Pratyūṣā are on either side. On the left side above stands Daṇḍi with staff. On the extreme left corner above appears a small figure with folded hands, possibly Vidyādhara (?). The girdle (aviyaṅga) is tied over the waist while yantra casket being suspended down. On either side of the chariot are shown goldings, symbolizing darkness. It can safely be dated to the sixth century A.D., when Indo-Iranian influence was decaying and indigenous types of Sun images were being sculptured. Two similar type of Sun sculptures are at present in worship—one at Gum and other at Devi-ri-Koṭhi in the same district.

Another Sun image in indigenous style has recently been explored from village Doghī in Unā district.^[21] It measures 98.5×71 cms. and is broken on the upper left side. The lower portion of the sandstone slab is unhewn which must have been fixed in the ground of some temple (fig. 3). He holds full blossomed lotuses in his hands, raised above the shoulders. The deity is seated in squatting on a chariot drawn by seven horses and Aruṇa as its driver. He wears a flat kirīṭamukuṭa, kuṇḍalas, kankaṇa and a scarf tastefully arranged over his arms. Behind the mukuṭa, there is a large lotus halo, partly broken. On the left side, there is a male figure—Daṇḍi;  the other side is broken. Above it are shown Uṣā and Pratyūṣā with their bows and arrows. Other details are rubbed off. However, we do not find any trace of Iranian influence. Most of the details correspond to the description of Agni Purāṇa.^[22] It may be assigned to the seventh century A.D.

In this variety, there are two wooden panels from Udaipur (Lahaul) carved on the inner facade of Markula temple. The Sun-God as the presiding deity has been shown twice on the lalāṭa-bimba. In the middle panel of the lintel, Sun is shown in a ratha, drawn by seven horses without showing its driver Aruṇa.^[23] He holds sceptre in his right hand, amṛtaghaṭa in the left hand. He wears beaded hāra, kuṇḍala, vanamālā and kirīṭa-mukuṭa. His body below the waist is inserted into ratha (fig. 4). Immediately below this panel, there is again a Sūrya in a ratha. He wears similar dress but holds lotuses in his both hands.

Another image of Sūrya, measuring 28×44 cms. is now in the east niche of Śiva temple at Baijnāth (fig. 5). He is shown squatted on a chariot drawn by seven horses. He holds blossomed lotuses in his both hands and wears hāra, kuṇḍalas and jewelled kirīṭa-mukuṭa. In this variety we have two more images of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries A.D. from Chambā. The noteworthy features of these images are that the lags as well as feet are bare, showing fingers, toes etc. The carving of decorative elements are prominent. The fig. 6 is now in the west niche of the Hari Rāi temple where as the fig. 7 is in the west niche of the Lakshmi Dāmodara temple. The former figure is shown, seated on a chariot drawn by seven horses with Aruṇa. He holds half-blossomed lotuses in his back hands while front two hands are in the abhaya and varada mudrās. He wears a jewelled kirīṭa-mukuṭa, hāra, kankaṇa, nūpura and mekhalā—with loops hanging downward. The image can be ascribed to the thirteenth century A.D. on the basis of iconographic details.

The latter figure also carry the similar details with minor distinctions. He is seated on a padmapīṭha (lotus pedestal) in a padmāsana, holding half-blossomed lotuses in the back hands while front two hands are in the varada and abhaya mudrās. On the left side, there is a female attendant, possibly Dyauh, first heavenly consort of Sūrya. Another feature of the image is a kaustubha jewel in the centre of chest as in the case of Vaikuṇṭha Viṣṇu mūrti, enshrined in the Hari Rāi temple. In this type, there are three more images; one seated on three horses and two wooden carvings from Parāśar Deo temple in the Mandi district^[24] which shows Sūrya seated on a horse. The figure 8, is a relief sculpture on the portico wall of the Vajreshwari temple of Chambā. The deity is seated, squatted on three horses, with four hands. The back two hands hold lotuses, the front right is broken while the left holds amṛtaghaṭa. The legs and feet are bare.

The figure 9 shows Sun riding a horse and on either side are two female attendants Rajnī and Nikṣubhā. He had four hands—the front two hold lotuses, the back hands are on the heads of two female attendants. He wears kirīṭa-mukuṭa, ear-pendants, hāra, yajñopavīta and vanamālā. The other panel (fig. 10) shows Sun in the similar fashion with the exception of female attendants. He also has four hands—front two hold lotuses, the back right holds a whip and left a rein. Again legs and feet are bare, in accordance with the iconographic details of Sun-God as described in the Sāmba Purāṇa.

2. Āsanamūrti without Chariot

In this category, we have only two sculptures, one from Masrur^[25] and other from Naggar in the Kulu district. The former (fig. 11) is 30.5 cms. in height. The deity is in a squatted position, holding lotuses in his hands, raised up to the level of shoulders. He wears kuṇḍalas, hāra, aviyaṅga with yantra casket and scarf decorated over the arms. The ringlets of hair and its other decorative features show Kuṣāṇa influence. In the latter case (fig. 12), deity is shown in the same style holding full blossomed lotuses. He wears a mukuṭa, beaded hāra, aviyaṅga, high boots and tight-fitting dress. On its left side there is a small female figure.^[26]

3. Sthānakamūrti with lotuses in hands

In this variety, there are nearly a dozen of images which show Sūrya in samabhaṅga pose, carrying lotuses in his both hands. The earliest life size (fig. 13) image comes from Bajaurā in the Kulu district.^[27] He holds half-blossomed lotuses in his both hands raised up to the level of shoulders and wears a long coat (udīcyaveśa) fastened by a belt (aviyaṅga) with yantra casket. It is adorned with a rectangular heavy beaded crown, carrings, hāra and spiral armlets. On the left side, there is a sword and sheath hanging downward. Most of the details correspond to the description given in the Bṛhat Samhitā.^[28] The Kuṣāṇa influence is predominant and there is none of the characteristics of Gupta period. It must belong to the fourth or fifth century A.D. if not to the earlier period.

Next in chronological order, a unique Sūrya image also comes from Bajaurā^[29] (fig. 14) measuring 38×76 cms. The deity has four hands—the back hands carry lotuses while the front two hold some indistinct object (?). He bears large kuṇḍalas, mukuṭa, hāra, kankaṇa, keyāra, mekhalā and scarf. From the claws it appears that it is a composite image of Sūrya and Garuḍa. In some hymns of the Ṛgveda,^[30] Sūrya is called as Garutmān, a celestial bird.

Another interesting Sun sculpture has been discovered by Y. D. Sharma in 1956 from village Haripur in the district Sirmaur^[31] (fig. 15). It measures 36×26 cms. and is dressed in the “Northerners dress” with a long boot and a belt with yantra casket.^[32] He is adorned with earrings, bracelets, armlets and a mukuṭa which shows five holes, possibly for jewels. He holds full blossomed lotuses in his both hands and a scarf hanging over the arms. Daṇḍa and Piṅgala stand on either side with Rājñī and Nikṣubhā. At the top corners are seen flying deities—Vidyādharas. It may be assigned to the eighth century A. D., when Kuṣāṇa influence was persistent but gradually disappearing. Most of its details correspond to the prescriptions of the Agni Purāṇa,^[33] Śilparatna^[34] and Amśumadabhedāgama.^[35]

Four-armed Sūrya (fig. 16) wearing a “Northern dress” has been explored from a village Naggar in the Kulu district. The panel which is at present in the west niche of the Gauri Śaṅkar temple at Naggar, shows Sūrya in a sthānaka pose, dressed with long boots, tight-fitting dress. The front two hands hold full blossomed lotuses while the back two hands are on the heads of two attendants.^[36] He wears a hāra, mukuṭa, kankaṇa, and long yantra casket suspended down from the girdle. However, the temple belongs to the twelfth century but this panel may be dated to the eighth or early ninth century A.D. With similar iconographic details, we have two sculptures from Jagatsukh and Bajaurā respectively, belonging to the same period. Eighth century onward, indigenous type of Sūrya images were sculptured whereas the Kuṣāṇa features were abandoned.

Sun (fig. 17) comes from Balag in the Simla district, a fine specimen of early medieval iconography. The figure is at present in the south niche of a miniature nāgara temple^[37]. It is tastefully decorated with such ornament, as ear-rings, necklace, armlets, bracelets (aṅgada and keyūra), waist girdle and leglets (mañjirā). It has a sacred thread, yajñopavīta worn in the upavīta fashion, a vanamālā and lotuses in both hands. A small figure which is broken, stands between the legs, may either be Aruṇa or goddess Nikṣubhā.^[38] The iconographic details partly correspond to the Agni Purāṇa, Amśumadabhedāgama and Suprabhedāgam.^[39] It may be dated to the ninth century A.D.^[40] and shows Gurjara art influences.

Another sculpture from Balag shows Sūrya in samabhaṅga pose (fig. 18). He wears a heavy kirīṭa-mukuṭa, with lotus halo behind the head. It is adorned with kuṇḍalas, hāra, mekhalā, mañjirā, yajñopavīta and  scarf. On the either side are his attendants—Daṇḍa and Piṅgala in dvibhan pose. Horse-faced Aśvinī-devatās also stand on both sides. Brahma and Vimu are shown seated in a space provided on either side of kāntimaṇḍala. On the top corners are vidyādharas in dancing mudrās. The iconographic details correspond to the prescriptions of the Bhaviṣya Purāṇa^[41] and it dates to the ninth or early tenth century A.D.

Of the late medieval period, we have a bronze image of Sūrya acquired by the SMS from village Sarahan in the Simla district.^[42] The deity stands on a rectangular pedestal in the form of inverted lotus. He holds full blossomed lotuses in his both hands. Two attendants Daṇḍa and Piṅgala stand on either side with their usual attributes. The toraṇa of the image behind the head has a circular form topped by stylised āmalaka and kalaśa. He wears a mukuṭa, hāra and vanamālā while other details are not clear (fig. 19).

Art style and foreign influence

We are acquainted with all the details of the Sun sculptures of Himachal Pradesh, to venture a critical analysis of their style, iconography and their position in the art history of Himachal. It is clear from the above account that the Ṛgvedic concept of Sun-worship was predominant. Besides the Sun’s representation in the form of disc with golden rays and svastika, we find conformity with the number of horses, i.e. one, three and seven as referred to in the Ṛgveda.^[43] Secondly, the Surya image from Bajaura also supports the view that to some extent Sun-God was worshiped in its composite form as Sūrya and Garuḍa. It is significant to mote that Sūrya has been identified with the bird Garuḍa in the hymns of the Ṛgveda as noted above.

Now let us discuss style and artistic trends. The earliest Sun inage (fig. 14) from Bajaura undeniably shows Kuṣāṇa features. Various images, up to the end of eighth or the beginning of the ninth century A.D. possess such traits. Even the Bṛhat Samhitā  and Viṣṇudharmottara Purāṇa clearly refer to the “Northerners dress”, which consists of waist girdle known as yaviyaṅga (aviyaṅga) and udīcyaveśa. It proves that up to the sixth century A.D. when above mentioned texts were written, Kuṣāṇa features were recognised and absorbed. The writers of these texts explained the covering of the body so logically that his body and legs should remain concealed (gāḍhgātra) as his tejas cannot be borne by the people.^[44] In the earlier images we find simplicity in the treatment of dress and ornaments. The survey clearly shows that after the eighth century A.D., Kuṣāṇa features were abandoned and indigenous type of Sun images were sculptured. Tenth century onward we find that the legs and feet of Sun are left bare, whereas the preponderance of indigenous elements had already begun from the late-Gupta period. Early images of Sun are simple and poor in decoration while later show more emphasis on elaboration in the presentation of decorative details.

The earlier images of Sun from Himachal bear Kuṣāṇa features, undoubtedly connected with the Iranian. The Sāmba, Bhaviṣya and Vārāha^[45] Purāṇas refer to the legend about the Māgi priests from Śakadvīpa for the installation of Sun image and its worship. The legend of Sāmba, the son of Kṛṣṇa has been dealt with at length by scholars. Here in this particular case the building of a temple of Sun-God on the bank of the Chandrabhāgā needs attention. None of the Purāṇas make any reference to a particular place where the temple was built. Was that (Mūlasthāna) Multān as suggested and accepted by scholars? The fresh evidence of Sun temple on the bank of the Chandrabhāgā at Markulā in Himachal is a point to note. The river Chandra joins Bhāgā at a place Tāndī in the Lahaul Spiti and from this point of confluence, the joint name was given to the rivers, i.e. Chandrabhāgā. The temple of Sun is situated nearly 60 km from Tāndī on the right bank of the Chandrabhāgā. As referred to in the Sāmba Purāṇa that Viśvakarman made Sun image with Kalpa vṛkṣa, took it to the Himalayas and sent it down the Chandrabhāgā for the sake of Sāmba.^[46] Further the local legend^[47] about the wedlock of Chandra, a daughter of Moon and Bhāgā, a son of Sūrya also supports the assumption that the temple of Sun-God was established by Sāmba at Markulā not at Multān. The ancient name of the village is Mārgul or Mārul^[48] which also suggests some relationship with Mitravana,^[49] the hermitage of Sāmba. These statements based on literature and local mythology, suggest that the Vedic mode of Sun-worship was prevalent in this part of India even to later stages in the history. We can also conclude that the first image of Sun-God was probably carved in the Lahaul areas of Himachal.

On the basis of the archaeological discoveries made from Himachal as mentioned above would make us to draw the conclusion that the features of solar iconography, high boots (shoes) in his legs, was not followed strictly as prescribed in the later text of brāhmanical religion. Therefore, it is reasonable to state that the solar iconography, in which foot, toes, and fingers were shown, was prevalent in this part of India from the very beginning and continued to be in vogue in later periods. It is generally believed that such icons of Sun-God were carved only in Southern India but these discoveries which we have made in Himachal go against the prevailing theory and figures of Sun in indigenous style without any so-called foreign influence were carved continuously in Northern India and some examples of this type of Sun images have already been discovered.^[50]

Notes

^[1] See, Banerjea, J. N. 1948. Surya (Aditya and Navagrahas), Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art, vol. XVI.

^[2] For the description of Sun-God in the literary works see L. P. Pandey, Sun-worship in Ancient India, Delhi, 1971; V. C. Srivastava, Sun-worship in Ancient India, Allahabad, 1972; Alice Boner, et. al., New Light on the Sun-Temple of Konark, Varanasi, 1972.

^[3] For example, see R. G. Bhandarkar. Vaiṣnavism, Śaivism and Minor Religious Systems, Varanasi, 1965, pp. 151-55.

^[4] Aitareya Brāhmaṇa, Chap. 15, pt. 4.

^[5] For iconographic details, see J. N. Banerjea, The Development of Hindu Iconography, 2nd ed. Delhi, 1956, Appendix B, pts. i-iii; T. A. Gopinath Rao, Elements of Hindu Iconography, vol. i, pt. II, 2nd ed. Delhi, 1968, Appendix C, pp. 83-100.

^[6] The discovery is reported in V. C. Ohri’s eds., The Arts of Himachal, Simla, 1975, pp. 215-17, figs. 5, 24.

^[7] For Symbols; see J. Allan, Calalogue of the Coins of Ancient India, Rep. New Delhi, 1975, Introduction.

^[8] Alexander Cunningham, Coins of Ancient India, Rep. Varanasi, 1963,pp. 70-71, pls. iv, vi.

^[9] J. Hutchison and J. Ph. Vogel, History of Punjab Hill States, vol. 1, Lahore, 1933, p. 268 ff.

^[10] See E. C. Bayley, “Notes on two inscriptions at Khunniara in the Kangra district,” Journal of the Asiatic Society, 1902-03, p. 116 ff.

^[11] Goblet d’Alviella in James Hastings, eds., Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, vol. iv, New York, 1971, pp. 327-28, fig. 17; for more details, see E. Thomas, The Swāstika, Washington, 1896.

^[12] Cf. Vogel, “Inscriptions of Chamba State,” AR, ASI 1902-03, pp. 242-43; See Cunningham, ASI, vol. xiv, pp. 111-12; also cf. Vogel, Antiquities of Chamba State, pt. i, Calcutta, 1911.

^[13] Vogel, “Inscriptions”, no. 2 line 4; no. 5, line 3.

^[14] J. F. Fleet, Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, vol. ii, 3rd ed. Varanasi, 1970, Pp. 286-91; particularly line 7 of the plate refers to Śrī Mihīreśvara—the Iranian form of Sun which is here for the first time.

^[15] Vogel Antiquities, p. 249 ff, pls. xxivc, ul.

^[16] Hermann Goetz, The Early Wooden Temples of Chamba, 1955, p. 51, fn. 70.

^[17] It measures 56×112 cm.

^[18] Van Der Sleen, Four Months Camping in the Himlayas, London, 1929, p. 44.

^[19] Now in the collection of the Bhuri Singh Museum Chamba (hereafter BSM); Acc. No. 78.31.

^[20] Goetz, The Early Wooden Temples, p. 60, fig 3; Brindavan C. Bhattacharya, Indian Images, Rep. New Delhi, 1978, p. 17, pl. X; cf. Hackin Carl, Recherches archéologiques au col de Khair Khana, Paris-Brussels, 1936, p. 19, fig 11.

^[21] Now in the collection of State Museum Simla (here after SMS); Acc. No. 87.157.

^[22] Agni Purāṇa, tr. M. N. Dutta, vol. 1, Calcutta, 1901 pp. 51-52.

^[23] Also see Goetz, op. cit., pp. 99-100 p xi.

^[24] Man Mohan, A History of Mandi State, Lahore, 1930, p. 21.

^[25] Now in the collection of SMS, Acc. No. 74.192.

^[26] In the collection of the Roerich Art Gallery, Naggar, Kullu.

^[27] Now in the collection of SMS, Acc. No. 74-203.

^[28] Bṛhat Saṃhitā tr. H. Kern in Journal of Royal Asiatic Society; 1873, chap. 58: 46-52.

^[29] Now in the garbhagṛha of Siva temple.

^[30] Ṛgveda, 1:191.11; also Pandey, op. cit., p. 10.

^[31] Indian Archaeology: A Review, 1956-57, 82-3.

^[32] In the collection of BSM Chamba, Acc. No. 57.6.

^[33] Agni Purāṇa, LI 1.3.

^[34] Śiparatna as quoted by Rao in EHI, vol. i. pt. 11, pp. 306-7.

^[35] Ibid.

^[36] Viṣṇudharmattara Purāṇa: Third Khaṇḍa, vol, ii, eds., by Priyabala Shah, Oriental Institute, Baroda, 1961, p. 149.

^[37] At Naggar, there are two miniature nāgara temples of the eighth century A. D., hence the date suggested for this panel can be taken free from any suspicion.

^[38] Pandey, op. cit., p. pl. 8, fig. 2.

^[39] Rao, op. cit., pt. 307.

^[40] The State Museum Simla has preserved a panel from Sirmaur which shows Sūrya with similar iconographic details belonging to the same period.

^[41] Rao, op. cit., p. 305.

^[42] Purchased from the Manager of Temple Management Committee, Śrī Bhīmākālī Temple, Sarahan, on March 31, 1979; Acc. No. 79.90.

^[43] Ṛgveda, VII: 63.2; VII : 77.3; I: 115, 3-4.

^[44] Bṛhat Saṃhitā, chap. lviii, Viṣṇudharmattara, chap. 67; Matsya Purāṇa, chap. 52: 31-33.

^[45] R. C. Hazra, Studies in the Upapurāṇas, vol. i, Calcutta, 1958, pp. 32-41.

^[46] Ibid.

^[47] District Gazetteers: Lahaul and Spiti, M. D. Mamgain, Chandigarh, 1975, p. 282.

^[48] Vogel, Antiquities, p. 15; also Goetz, op. cit., p. 90.

^[49] Hazra; op. cit., p. 40.

^[50] Pandey, op. cit., passim.